This is a working overview of Semax, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-08-01. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
Semax 是人工设计的七肽，序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，骨架取自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)。它于二十世纪八十年代在苏联的分子遗传学研究机构内合成。设计目标是保留该片段与注意力和记忆相关的活性，同时剔除促皮质激素释放等内分泌作用。此后俄罗斯将其登记为药品并进入临床使用。
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not incidental. Proline-rich tails are known to resist several common peptidases, and the published literature attributes the longer half-life of Semax, relative to unmodified ACTH fragments, to this feature. The modification also removes the melanocyte-stimulating and corticosteroidogenic activity that characterizes longer ACTH-derived sequences. Because the molecule is small and hydrophilic, it is typically formulated as an aqueous solution for intranasal or parenteral delivery. Acetylation or amidation at the termini appears in closely related research peptides and shifts the mass by a fixed increment.
Reported pharmacological work centers on neurotrophic signaling, including changes in BDNF and NGF expression in hippocampal tissue in animal models. Human data come largely from studies conducted in Russia, and how well those results generalize to other populations remains an open question. Regulatory status differs sharply by jurisdiction: Semax is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while it holds no approved marketing status in the United States or the European Union. Outside such jurisdictions it is generally handled as a research chemical, which affects both documentation and quality expectations.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 结构类别 | 线性合成七肽 | 无环化结构，不含二硫键 |
| 氨基酸序列 | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | N 端为甲硫氨酸 |
| 分子量 | 约 814 Da | 游离碱形式的计算值 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 具吸湿性 |
| 溶解性 | 易溶于水 | 亦可溶于甲醇等极性溶剂 |
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
== Licences == SIRIUS is developed by the group of Sebastian Böcker at the FSU Jena in close collaboration with the Bright Giant GmbH. SIRIUS is provided as a software-as-a-service solution. The client software is open-source and installed on the users' computers. Molecular formula annotation using fragmentation trees and isotope pattern analysis is performed on your local computer without subscription requirement. The SIRIUS web services for structural elucidation, including molecular fingerprint prediction, structure database search, confidence score assessment and compound class prediction, require a user account. The web services are free for academic/non-commercial use provided/hosted by the FSU Jena. Academic institutions are identified by their email domain and access will be granted automatically. In some cases, further validation might be required. Bright Giant GmbH offers subscription-based access to the SIRIUS web services for structural elucidation for commercial users.
According to the article: "More than a dozen prominent Washington research groups have received tens of millions of dollars from foreign governments in recent years while pushing United States government officials to adopt policies that often reflect the donors' priorities."
=== Storage methods === Fresh refrigerated tempeh should be sealed in a labeled polyethylene bag and kept in temperatures below 4 °C (40 °F). It can be kept at this temperature for three to five days and sometimes, even as long as a week. Storage life could be extended to two or three weeks if the tempeh is blanched or steamed prior to refrigeration due to the inactivation of enzymes and destruction of bacteria. Freezing is the preferred way to preserve tempeh due to its capability for wide distribution. Tempeh can be frozen whole or in slices, depending on preference. During the freezing process, whole tempeh is placed in its perforated wrapper whereas sliced tempeh is packaged in a labelled polyethylene bag prior to being sealed in an outer bag and then frozen immediately. This method will keep for months with only a small loss of texture and flavor. Blanching tempeh by steaming or parboiling helps to extend the storage life by preventing bacterial growth, stopping mold growth and inactivating enzymes. Steaming appears to have a less negative effect than parboiling in terms of texture, flavor and nutritional value. Blanching is a great method for preserving tempeh prior to refrigeration, though not as beneficial for tempeh that is to be frozen.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Phimosis, balanitis and balanoposthitis === Phimosis is the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans penis. At birth, the foreskin cannot be retracted due to adhesions between the foreskin and glans, and this is considered normal (physiological phimosis). Over time the foreskin naturally separates from the glans, and a majority of boys are able to retract the foreskin by age three. Less than one percent are still having problems at age 18. If the inability to do so becomes problematic (pathological phimosis) circumcision is a treatment option. A preputioplasty, where the foreskin is surgically widened instead of removed, is another possible surgical treatment option for phimosis. This pathological phimosis may be due to scarring from the skin disease balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), repeated episodes of balanoposthitis or forced retraction of the foreskin. Steroid creams are also a reasonable option and may prevent the need for surgery including in those with mild BXO. The procedure may also be used to prevent the development of phimosis. Phimosis is also a complication that can result from circumcision. An inflammation of the glans penis and foreskin is called balanoposthitis, and the condition affecting the glans alone is called balanitis. Most cases of these conditions occur in uncircumcised males, affecting 4–11% of that group. The moist, warm space underneath the foreskin is thought to facilitate the growth of pathogens, particularly when hygiene is poor.
=== Molecular structure === With few exceptions, most chloroplasts have their entire genome combined into a single large circular DNA molecule, typically 120,000–170,000 base pairs long and a mass of about 80–130 million daltons. While chloroplast genomes can almost always be assembled into a circular map, the physical DNA molecules inside cells take on a variety of linear and branching forms. New chloroplasts may contain up to 100 copies of their genome, though the number of copies decreases to about 15–20 as the chloroplasts age. Chloroplast DNA is usually condensed into nucleoids, which can contain multiple copies of the chloroplast genome. Many nucleoids can be found in each chloroplast. In primitive red algae, the chloroplast DNA nucleoids are clustered in the center of the chloroplast, while in green plants and green algae, the nucleoids are dispersed throughout the stroma. Chloroplast DNA is not associated with true histones, proteins that are used to pack DNA molecules tightly in eukaryote nuclei. Though in red algae, similar proteins tightly pack each chloroplast DNA ring in a nucleoid. Many chloroplast genomes contain two inverted repeats, which separate a long single copy section (LSC) from a short single copy section (SSC). A given pair of inverted repeats are rarely identical, but they are always very similar to each other, apparently resulting from concerted evolution. The inverted repeats vary wildly in length, ranging from 4,000 to 25,000 base pairs long each and containing as few as four or as many as over 150 genes.
=== Anaerobic treatment and co-digestion === Anaerobic digestion is a widely used method for treating cheese whey due to its high biodegradability (approximately 99%). Mechanically stirred anaerobic sequencing batch reactors (ASBR) have shown removal efficiencies above 90% for organic matter. However, the process requires careful control of alkalinity (often supplemented with sodium bicarbonate) to maintain stability and prevent the flotation of granular biomass caused by the formation of viscous polymers at high organic loads. To enhance energy recovery, co-digestion strategies have been developed to overcome the limitations of mono-digestion. Research by Lovato et al. (2018) demonstrated that co-digesting cheese whey with glycerin—a major by-product of the biodiesel industry—can significantly improve biohydrogen production. Their study indicated that mesophilic conditions (30 °C) are optimal for hydrogen production in these co-digestion systems, provided that inoculum pre-treatment and micronutrient supplementation are applied. Further advancements have focused on two-stage anaerobic digestion systems, which separate the acidogenic (hydrogen-producing) and methanogenic (methane-producing) phases. A comparative study by Lovato et al. (2020) confirmed that a two-stage system treating a mixture of whey and glycerin is more energetically feasible than a traditional single-stage methanogenic system, offering higher net energy yields.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Technology == HVEC manufactured approximately 471 particle accelerators between 1946 and 1981. Its former European subsidiary, High Voltage Engineering Europa, produced another 93 between 1958 and 2005. Over 25 years, the company's Van de Graaff product lines evolved from 2.5-metre (8.2 ft) compact medical X-ray generators to 24.5-metre (80 ft) tandem accelerators for nuclear physics research. HVEC also developed the insulating core transformer, a new high-voltage direct current generator that found applications in industrial radiation processing. These products enabled commercial development of electron-beam sterilization, radiation crosslinking of polymers, and ion implantation for semiconductor manufacturing.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration noted in 2007 that fruit and vegetable-related outbreaks of food poisoning are on the rise and had struck in spinach, tomatoes, lettuce and cantaloupes. The agency urged fruit and vegetable processors to adopt food safety plans similar to those in the meat industry. An outbreak of Salmonella Saintpaul in 2008 was characterized by the US Center for Disease Control as the largest foodborne outbreak in a decade. Some 1304 infected persons were identified in 43 states, at least 252 were hospitalized and two deaths were possibly linked to the outbreak. CDC noted that the trace back of fresh produce, such as tomatoes, through the supply chain could be very difficult and labor-intensive. Ironically, the carrier item was ultimately determined to be jalapeño peppers, not tomatoes.
This stirring also helps avoid the development of reductive sulfur compounds like mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide that can appear if the lees layer is more than 10 cm (3.9 in) thick and undisturbed for more than a week. Most of the benefits associated with lees contact deals with the influence on the wine of the mannoproteins released during the autolysis of the yeast cells. Composed primarily of mannose and proteins, with some glucose, mannoproteins are often bound in the cell wall of yeast with hydrophobic aroma compounds that become volatilized as the cell wall breaks down. Not only does the release of mannoproteins impart sensory changes in the wine but they can contribute to tartrate and protein stability, help enhance the body and mouthfeel of the wine as well as decrease the perception of bitterness and astringency of tannins.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
不存在。它是依据 ACTH 的一段序列人工设计的分子，天然蛋白质中找不到与之完全相同的七肽。名称属于研究代号，而非天然物质名。
Semax 对应 ACTH 第 4 至第 10 位的片段，并在两端做了替换与延长，使其不再具备促肾上腺皮质激素的典型内分泌活性。这一改动同时改变了它在体内的稳定性与分布特征。
俄罗斯将其列为处方药物，需要医生开具处方。多数其他国家把它当作研究化合物，不能作为药品销售或宣称疗效。具体合法性取决于当地法规。
The sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, a seven-residue peptide. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, and Pro-Gly-Pro is added at the C-terminus. N-acetylated versions also appear in the literature and differ in mass.